Zoque People: A Forgotten Indigenous Group

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Have you ever heard of the Zoque people? They are an indigenous group of southern Mexico, and they embody a rich cultural heritage that weaves together ancient traditions, resilience in the face of multiple conquests, and a unique linguistic identity. Residing primarily in the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Tabasco, the Zoque have a history that stretches back thousands of years, potentially linked to the enigmatic Olmec civilization. Their culture, deeply tied to the land and spiritual practices, reflects a profound connection to nature and community. Among the most intriguing aspects of their story is the Zoque language, particularly the Ayapa Zoque dialect, and the widely circulated story that its last two speakers refuse to speak to each other. This episode of Mexico Unexplained delves into the Zoque’s history, culture, language, and the truth behind the captivating tale of the nearly extinct dialect of Zoque.

The Zoque people trace their origins to the ancient landscapes of southern Mexico, with evidence suggesting their ancestors inhabited the region as early as 5,800 years ago. Scholars propose a possible connection to the Olmec civilization, often considered the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica, due to possible linguistic and cultural parallels. The Zoque’s early ancestors were among the first in Mesoamerica to transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to maize-based agriculture, a shift that laid the foundation for their societal development.

At the time of the Spanish conquest in 1523, the Zoque were organized into chiefdoms, some independent and others under the influence of neighboring Nahua or Chiapas groups. Their territory spanned Chiapas, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca, and parts of Tabasco. The Zoque maintained trade and social relationships with other Mesoamerican groups, including the Aztecs, which contributed to their economic prosperity before European arrival. However, the Aztec Empire invaded Zoque lands in 1494 under Emperor Āhuitzotl, forcing them to pay tribute.

The Spanish conquest brought profound changes. Led by Luis Marin, the Europeans subjected the Zoque to forced labor, high tribute demands, and intense evangelization efforts. Diseases and exploitation decimated their population, reducing their numbers significantly by the late 19th century, with estimates suggesting only 20,000 Zoque remained by 1895. Despite these challenges, the Zoque preserved elements of their culture, particularly in remote areas like the Sierra de Pantepec, through trade, ritual exchanges, and by resisting complete assimilation.

In the 20th century, Zoque communities faced further pressures from modernization and globalization. Spanish-language education, and migration to urban centers and the United States also diluted Zoque culture in their traditional homelands. By the 1990 census, approximately 43,160 Zoque speakers were recorded, though territorial dispersion and the exclusion of young children from these counts suggest a larger population. Today, estimates place the Zoque population at around 100,000, with many still practicing traditional customs while navigating the complexities of modern Mexico.

Modern Zoque culture is a vibrant blend of pre-Hispanic traditions and adaptations to colonial and 21^st Century influences. At its core is a worldview that reveres the natural world, with spiritual practices centered on deities associated with the sun, moon, mountains, and water. The Zoque call themselves O’de püt, meaning “people of the language” or “human speech,” reflecting their pride in their linguistic identity. The term “Zoque” may derive from the Nahuatl word zoquitl, meaning “mud” or “humid earth,” possibly alluding to the fertile lands they inhabit.

Agriculture remains a cornerstone of Zoque life, with maize, beans, and cacao as staple crops. Their agricultural practices are intertwined with rituals that honor the earth’s fertility, such as offerings to Jantepusi or “Mother of the Earth” and deities linked to rain and the moon. These rituals persist despite the nominal adoption of Roman Catholicism following the Spanish conquest, with many Zoque maintaining syncretic practices that blend indigenous beliefs with Christian elements. For example, sacred caves and mountains remain sites of worship to many Zoques, where gods like the serpent, jaguar, and deer are venerated. Another deity respected by the Zoque is Piowacwe who is the goddess of misfortune and resides in the Chichonal Volcano in northwestern Chiapas.

Zoque social structure emphasizes community and reciprocity. To many Zoques, a mythical tribunal called I’ps Tojk, or “the twelve houses,” enforces social and moral norms, with violations of those norms believed to result in illness or misfortune. Curers, known as jama yoye, play a vital role in healing by addressing spiritual imbalances, often through rituals involving dreams and animal-companion spirits called kojama. While these practices are declining due to modern healthcare, they underscore the Zoque’s holistic approach to health and community harmony.

Traditional arts, such as basketry and the creation of ritual masks and musical instruments like drums and flutes, remain significant, though textile and ceramic production has waned. Zoque women occasionally wear traditional attire—colorfully embroidered blouses and long poplin skirts or bright knee-length dresses with lacy trims—for special occasions, preserving a visual link to their heritage. Bilingual and indigenous-language publications have also emerged in Zoque territory, fostering a literary tradition among Zoque narrators and poets.

The Zoque language is part of the Mixe-Zoquean language family, which includes Mixe, Zoque, and Popoluca languages spoken across southern Mexico. This family is notable for its potential historical link to the Olmec, with some scholars suggesting that Mixe-Zoquean speakers were prominent in Olmec society. The Zoque branch includes several dialects, such as Chiapas Zoque, Jitotoltec, and Ayapa Zoque, with significant internal diversity among the dialects. The Mexican government recognizes Zoque or O’de püt as an official national language, with approximately 88,000 speakers reported in recent estimates, though dialects vary widely in mutual intelligibility.

To veer off into the land of grammar nerds for a moment, the Zoque language is characterized by its ergative alignment and direct-inverse systems, reflecting animacy and topicality in sentence structure. It distinguishes between independent and dependent clauses with unique aspect markers for incompletive, completive, and irrealis forms. Are you ready for the quiz at the end of the show? Despite its richness, the Zoque languages face endangerment, particularly in urban areas where Spanish dominates. Migration and compulsory Spanish education have accelerated this decline, especially for dialects like Ayapa Zoque, spoken exclusively in the village of Ayapa, Tabasco.

In the 2010 census, 65,372 Zoque speakers were recorded nationwide, with 82.3% residing in Chiapas, 8.2% in Oaxaca, and others in Veracruz and Tabasco. The Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas, or “INALI,” identifies eight Zoque linguistic variants, highlighting the language’s diversity. However, dialects like San Miguel Chimalapa Zoque are no longer learned by children, and Ayapa Zoque is critically endangered, with only about 15 fluent speakers aged 67 to 90. Efforts to revitalize these languages, supported by INALI and linguists like Daniel Suslak, include developing word lists, dictionaries, and learning materials to encourage new speakers.

One of the most compelling stories surrounding the Zoque language is the myth that the last two speakers of Ayapa Zoque, also known as Tabasco Zoque or Nuumte Oote “The True Voice,” refuse to speak to each other. This tale gained international attention following a 2011 article in The Guardian, which claimed that Manuel Segovia age 77 and Isidro Velazquez age 70, the last fluent speakers in Ayapa, Tabasco, were estranged and unwilling to communicate, endangering the language’s survival. The story went viral, amplified by media outlets and even a 2013 Vodafone advertisement that falsely portrayed the company as aiding language revitalization.

However, this narrative is a myth, debunked by linguists and the Ayapa community. Daniel Suslak, an anthropologist at Indiana University, clarified that the story was inaccurate and harmful, causing conflicts and unwanted media attention for the speakers and their families. In reality, there are approximately 15 speakers of Ayapa Zoque, including semi-speakers, and the community has been actively working to preserve the language. The myth oversimplified the complex factors contributing to the language’s decline, such as Spanish-language education, urbanization, and migration, and ignored the community’s efforts to teach the language to younger generations.

Since 2012, INALI has supported revitalization initiatives, including festivals in the village of Ayapa where speakers and their families participate. Linguists are developing a dictionary and orthography to facilitate education, countering the narrative of inevitable extinction. The myth’s persistence highlights a broader fascination with stories of vanishing languages, but it has also spurred positive action, as linguists and community members work to dispel misinformation and promote cultural pride.

Zoque mythology offers a window into their spiritual and cultural identity, blending indigenous beliefs with external influences. Their religious pantheon includes deities like Poj ‘Enee, or Thunder Wind, a rain and fertility god, and Naaxwiiñ or Earth Surface, an earth goddess. Mythical figures such as Piowacwe and Nawayomo reflect a worldview where natural and supernatural forces intertwine. These stories, often passed down through oral tradition, feature trickster tales, magical transformations, and mythical heroes, illustrating the Zoque’s connection to their environment and moral frameworks. The I’ps Tojk tribunal, a mythical court that punishes social transgressions, underscores the Zoque’s belief in spiritual consequences for moral failings. These narratives, preserved in endangered dialects like Ayapa Zoque, are critical to cultural continuity, making language revitalization efforts all the more vital.

Today, the Zoque face ongoing challenges, including land disputes, economic migration, and cultural assimilation. The expansion of urban centers and agricultural industries threatens their traditional territories, particularly in the Selva Zoque region of Oaxaca. Deforestation, especially illegal logging, further endangers their agricultural lifestyle. Yet, the Zoque remain resilient, with community-led initiatives to preserve their language, rituals, and arts. Organizations like INALI and local cultural festivals play a crucial role in fostering pride and continuity among the Zoque people.

The Zoque’s story is one of endurance, from their ancient roots to their modern struggles. The myth of the last two Ayapa Zoque speakers, while compelling, obscures their collective efforts to maintain their cultural and linguistic heritage. By understanding their history, culture, and ongoing revitalization efforts, we can appreciate the Zoque’s vital contribution to Mexico’s cultural mosaic. They represent a vibrant thread in the tapestry of Mesoamerican culture, with a history that spans millennia and a language that carries the weight of their ancestral wisdom. Their agricultural traditions, spiritual practices, and linguistic diversity reflect a deep connection to the land and community. The story of the last two Ayapa Zoque speakers not talking to each other, though debunked, underscores the fragility of indigenous languages and the importance of revitalization efforts throughout Mexico. As the Zoque navigate the challenges of modernity and globalism, their resilience and cultural pride continue to shine, ensuring that their Nuumte Oote—True Voice—endures for future generations.

REFERENCES

Suslak, Daniel F. 2011. “Ayapan Echoes: Linguistic Persistence and Loss in Tabasco, Mexico.” American Anthropologist 113, no. 4: 569–581. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1433.2011.01370.x.